Cyber Investigators And Digital Forensics

Chain of Custody in Digital Forensics: Ensuring Integrity of Evidence

The chain of custody represents the systematic process that tracks the custody, control, transfer, analysis, and disposition of evidence, whether physical or electronic, in legal proceedings. Maintaining an unbroken chain is crucial, as any lapse can render the evidence inadmissible in court. Preserving the chain of custody involves adhering to proper procedures to maintain evidence quality.

Overview of Chain of Custody in Digital Forensics

Professionals in Cyber Security often engage in Digital Forensics, where the chain of custody is a vital concept.

• It acts as a chronological documentation or “paper trail” of evidence handling.
• The chain of custody ensures evidence is collected, controlled, transferred, and analyzed appropriately.
• It includes details such as who handled the evidence, when and why it was transferred, and the method of collection.
• This documentation builds trust in court by proving the evidence remains untampered.
• Digital evidence sources include IoT devices, audio/video recordings, images, and various storage media like hard drives and flash drives.

Importance of Preserving the Chain of Custody

For the Examiner:

• Ensures the evidence retains its integrity.
• Prevents contamination that could compromise evidence validity.
• Assists in metadata analysis, tracing the evidence’s origin, creation, and properties.

For the Court:

• Evidence without a preserved chain of custody may be contested and deemed inadmissible.

Chain of Custody Process

The chain of custody process spans from evidence collection to its presentation in court.

1. Data Collection:
   • The process begins here with identifying, labeling, recording, and acquiring data from relevant sources.
   • The integrity of collected data is preserved at this stage.
2. Examination:
   • The forensic process undertaken is documented, capturing screenshots to illustrate completed tasks and uncovered evidence.
3. Analysis:
   • This step uses legally justified techniques to extract meaningful insights addressing case-specific questions.
4. Reporting:
   • Documentation consolidates the examination and analysis stages.
   • Includes chain of custody statements, tools used, data analysis, identified issues, vulnerabilities, and additional forensic recommendations.

Chain of Custody Form

A chain of custody form documents every detail of evidence handling. It answers:

• What the evidence is: Includes file name, hash value, serial number, etc.
• How it was obtained: Describes methods like bagging or tagging.
• When it was collected: Records date and time.
• Who handled it: Identifies individuals involved.
• Where it was stored: Notes the physical or digital storage location.
• How it was transported: Details storage containers or bags used.
• Who had access: Tracks access through check-in/check-out processes.

Procedure to Establish the Chain of Custody

To ensure the authenticity of evidence:

1. Preserve the original material.
2. Photograph physical evidence.
3. Take screenshots of digital evidence.
4. Document dates, times, and details upon receipt of evidence.
5. Clone digital evidence bit-for-bit onto forensic systems.
6. Conduct hash tests to validate the working copy.

Key Considerations for On-Site Examinations

1. Secure the crime scene before and during the search.
2. Identify and document all relevant devices and media.
3. Interview administrators and users.
4. Note remote storage areas, proprietary software, and operating systems.
5. Ensure proper handling and documentation of all evidence collected.

Digital Forensics in Information Security

Digital Forensics is a specialized field within forensic science that focuses on identifying, collecting, analyzing, and reporting valuable digital information stored on digital devices, especially in cases of computer crimes. Essentially, Digital Forensics involves the systematic process of detecting, preserving, examining, and presenting digital evidence. The origin of computer-related crimes can be traced back to the 1978 Florida Computer Crimes Act, which marked the beginning of this field’s rapid growth in the late 1980s and 1990s. It encompasses areas such as storage media, hardware, operating systems, networks, and software applications. The process can be summarized in five key steps:

• Evidence Identification: This involves locating evidence related to digital crimes across storage devices, hardware, operating systems, networks, or software applications. It is the foundational and most critical step in the process.
• Collection: This step focuses on preserving the identified digital evidence to prevent its degradation or loss over time. Proper preservation is essential and highly sensitive.
• Analysis: Collected evidence is analyzed to trace the offender and determine the methods used to breach the system.
• Documentation: The entire investigative process, including digital evidence, system vulnerabilities, and findings, is documented in detail. This ensures the information is available for future reference and can be presented in court in an organized manner.
• Presentation: All documented findings and digital evidence are presented in court to demonstrate the crime and identify the perpetrator effectively.

Branches of Digital Forensics:

1. Media Forensics: Focuses on the identification, collection, analysis, and presentation of audio, video, and image evidence during investigations.
2. Cyber Forensics: Deals with the identification, collection, analysis, and presentation of digital evidence in cybercrime investigations.
3. Mobile Forensics: Concerns the identification, collection, analysis, and presentation of digital evidence related to crimes involving mobile devices, such as smartphones, GPS devices, tablets, or laptops.
4. Software Forensics: Involves the identification, collection, analysis, and presentation of evidence during investigations of crimes related exclusively to software.

Digital Forensics in Information Security

Computer Forensics is a systematic method of investigation and analysis aimed at collecting evidence from digital devices, computer networks, or components, suitable for presentation in a court of law or a legal body. It involves conducting a structured investigation while maintaining a documented chain of evidence to determine precisely what occurred on a device and who was responsible for the activity.

Types

• Disk Forensics: Focuses on retrieving raw data from primary or secondary storage devices, including active, modified, or deleted files.
• Network Forensics: A specialized branch of Computer Forensics that involves the monitoring and analysis of computer network traffic.
• Database Forensics: Involves the examination and analysis of databases and their associated metadata.
• Malware Forensics: Specializes in identifying suspicious code and studying malicious software like viruses and worms.
• Email Forensics: Concerns the recovery and analysis of emails, including deleted messages, calendars, and contact lists.
• Memory Forensics: Involves collecting and analyzing data from system memory (e.g., system registers, cache, RAM) for further investigation.
• Mobile Phone Forensics: Focuses on analyzing mobile devices to retrieve data such as contacts, call logs, SMS, and other stored information.

Characteristics

• Identification: Determining the evidence present, its storage location, and format. Digital devices can include personal computers, mobile phones, and PDAs.
• Preservation: Ensuring data is secured and isolated to prevent tampering, whether accidental or intentional, while creating a copy of the original evidence.
• Analysis: Forensic lab experts reconstruct data fragments and draw conclusions based on the available evidence.
• Documentation: Recording all visible data to recreate and review the crime scene. Findings from the investigation are thoroughly documented.
• Presentation: Producing all documented findings in a court of law for further legal procedures.

Procedure

The process begins by identifying devices involved and gathering preliminary evidence from the crime scene. A court warrant is then obtained for the seizure of evidence, which is subsequently transported to a forensic lab following a documented chain of custody.

The evidence is duplicated for analysis while the original remains preserved, as investigations are performed exclusively on the copied data. Analysts examine the evidence for suspicious activities, document findings in non-technical language, and present the results in court for further legal evaluation.

Applications

• Intellectual property theft
• Industrial espionage
• Employment disputes
• Fraud investigations
• Misuse of the Internet and email in workplaces
• Forgery-related cases
• Bankruptcy investigations
• Regulatory compliance issues

Advantages of Computer Forensics

• Provides evidence in court, enabling the conviction of perpetrators.
• Assists organizations in identifying potential system or network compromises.
• Facilitates the tracking of cybercriminals globally.
• Safeguards organizational assets like money and time.
• Extracts, processes, and interprets factual evidence to prove cybercrimes in court.

Disadvantages of Computer Forensics

• Digital evidence must be proven untampered to be accepted in court.
• Maintaining and producing electronic records is costly.
• Legal professionals require extensive computer knowledge.
• Evidence must be authentic and convincing.
• Non-compliance with digital forensic tool standards can result in evidence rejection in court.
• Limited technical expertise among investigating officers may yield unsatisfactory results.

Network Forensics?

What is Network Forensics?

Network forensics involves examining how computers communicate within a network to understand activities within a company’s systems. This process is crucial for investigating potential misuse of computer systems. Conducting effective network forensics requires following specific steps and using specialized tools to analyze and interpret the data exchanged between computers.

This guide covers the steps involved in network forensics, the tools used, and the distinction between network forensics and analyzing individual computers, highlighting the importance of both in solving cybercrimes.

Understanding Network Forensics

Network forensics focuses on monitoring and analyzing computer interactions over a network. It examines the data transmitted between devices to identify malicious activities. This includes investigating network traffic, logs, and other usage data to solve computer crimes, address network issues, and combat data theft.

The primary objective is to uncover and preserve digital evidence admissible in court. By analyzing network records, investigators can reconstruct events, tracing communication timelines and detecting anomalies. This process provides insights into security breaches or other suspicious incidents, such as altered files, specific keywords, or unusual behavior.

Steps in Network Forensics Examination

1. Identification: Determine what needs to be examined to guide data collection and tool selection. This foundational step ensures an efficient process.
2. Preservation: Secure the evidence by creating and storing copies of critical data in a way that maintains its integrity. Tools like Autopsy or EnCase help safeguard the evidence.
3. Collection: Gather data using both manual and automated methods. Manually examine individual files, while specialized software analyzes network traffic to extract relevant data.
4. Examination: Scrutinize the collected data to identify irregularities indicating security issues. Pay attention to unusual IP addresses, file names, and other potential signs of malicious activity.
5. Analysis: Interpret the data to uncover the root cause of the issue. Utilize software tools to monitor network activity and analyze records to pinpoint problems.
6. Presentation: Summarize findings through a report or presentation, including evidence of breaches or malicious actions. Provide recommendations to enhance security and prepare to address follow-up questions.
7. Incident Response: Apply insights to address the issue, minimize damage, and identify the root cause. Implement corrective actions to prevent recurrence. The response plan should aim to maintain system functionality, preserve data, and safeguard organizational assets.

Types of Tools for Network Forensics

Various tools assist in gathering and analyzing network evidence from components such as routers and servers. Here are some key types:

1. Packet Capture Tools: Capture and store network data for later analysis, revealing the flow of network communication. Examples: Wireshark, TCPDump, Arkime.
2. Full-Packet Capture Tools: Record all network data for comprehensive analysis. Examples: NetWitness Investigator, RSA NetWitness Platform.
3. Log Analysis Tools: Analyze records from network devices to identify patterns. Examples: Splunk, ELK Stack, Graylog.
4. NetFlow Analysis Tools: Examine traffic patterns to detect anomalies. Examples: SolarWinds NetFlow Traffic Analyzer, ManageEngine NetFlow Analyzer.
5. SIEM Tools: Aggregate logs from multiple network devices into one interface for comprehensive monitoring. Examples: Splunk Enterprise Security, IBM QRadar.
6. Digital Forensics Platforms: Offer end-to-end solutions, from data acquisition to reporting. Examples: RSA NetWitness Platform, Splunk Enterprise Security.
7. Intrusion Detection System Tools: Monitor networks for malicious activities and provide alerts. Examples: Snort, Suricata.

Cybercrime Causes And Measures To Prevent It

In today’s world, technology plays an essential role in daily life. Our routines heavily rely on it, and the internet has become an integral part of everyone’s life. With vast amounts of data available, people are becoming increasingly dependent on and addicted to the internet. The percentage of internet users is growing steadily. Even national security relies heavily on internet-based systems. However, the advent of new technologies has introduced unprecedented risks, and cybercrime is one such growing concern. Cybercrime involves criminal activities such as hacking, spamming, and other malicious activities that utilize computers.

Overview of Cybercrime

Cybercrime refers to all unlawful activities conducted using technology. Cybercriminals use the internet and advanced technologies to hack personal computers, smartphones, social media accounts, business secrets, national secrets, and other sensitive data. These hackers engage in illegal and harmful activities online. Despite the efforts of various agencies to combat this issue, it continues to expand, victimizing individuals through identity theft, hacking, and malware. Let’s delve deeper into the concept of cybercrime.

Insecure Direct Object Reference (IDOR)

IDOR is a vulnerability that enables attackers to manipulate or access resources belonging to other application users. This permission-based flaw often involves endpoints improperly securing access to sensitive data, including images, addresses, or login credentials. Due to the complexity of permission-based vulnerabilities, they often require manual intervention for resolution.

Causes of Cybercrime

Cybercriminals often target easy opportunities to acquire wealth. Organizations like banks, casinos, financial firms, and businesses are prime targets due to the vast flow of money and sensitive information they handle daily. Capturing these criminals is challenging, leading to an increase in global cybercrime rates. To safeguard against such threats, comprehensive laws and robust protective measures are essential. Cybercrime thrives due to the following factors:

1. Ease of Access to Computers: The complexity of technology makes it challenging to fully protect systems from viruses and hackers. Cybercriminals can bypass security measures by exploiting advanced tools like access codes, voice recorders, and biometric data.
2. Compact Storage of Data: Computers store vast amounts of information in small spaces, enabling cybercriminals to steal and misuse data easily.
3. Complexity of Coding: Operating systems rely on millions of lines of code, which may contain flaws or errors. Cybercriminals exploit these vulnerabilities to breach systems.
4. User Negligence: Human errors or carelessness in securing computer systems provide cybercriminals with opportunities to gain unauthorized access.
5. Loss of Evidence: Cybercriminals often erase logs or data trails, complicating investigations and hindering law enforcement.

Types of Cybercrimes

Cybercrime manifests in various forms, including:

1. Hacking: Sending unauthorized instructions to networks or computers to access sensitive information. Hackers use specialized software to compromise systems, often without the victim’s knowledge.
2. Child Exploitation and Abuse: Criminals exploit children online, often through chat rooms, to create and distribute child pornography. Cybersecurity agencies monitor such platforms to curb these crimes.
3. Plagiarism, Piracy, and Theft: Violating copyright laws by illegally downloading music, movies, games, or software. Many websites promoting piracy are now targeted by law enforcement.
4. Cyberstalking: Online harassment involving persistent messages or emails. In extreme cases, cyberstalking may escalate to physical stalking.
5. Cyberterrorism: Large-scale attacks targeting individuals, organizations, or governments using malware or computer viruses. These acts aim to instill fear and cause destruction.
6. Identity Theft: Stealing personal information such as bank account details or social security numbers to commit fraud or financial theft.
7. Computer Vandalism: Malicious activities like installing harmful programs to destroy data or disrupt systems.
8. Malware: Internet-based software used to infiltrate systems and steal sensitive information or cause damage.

How to Prevent Cybercrime

Effectively combating cybercrime requires collaboration between law enforcement, the IT industry, security organizations, internet companies, and financial institutions. Unlike traditional criminals, cybercriminals often work together to enhance their methods and share resources. To counteract these threats, the following preventive measures are essential:

1. Use Strong Passwords: Create unique passwords for each account and avoid common patterns or default passwords.
2. Keep Social Media Profiles Private: Regularly review and adjust privacy settings. Avoid sharing sensitive information online.
3. Encrypt Sensitive Data: Use encryption to protect critical files, especially those related to finances or taxes.
4. Be Cautious with Personal Information: Share personal details like names, addresses, and financial information only on secure websites.
5. Update Passwords Regularly: Change passwords frequently to minimize the risk of unauthorized access.
6. Secure Mobile Devices: Only download apps from trusted sources and keep operating systems updated. Use antivirus software and secure lock screens.
7. Seek Help When Needed: If you encounter illegal content or suspect cybercrime, report it to local authorities or specialized websites.
8. Install Security Software: Use trusted antivirus and firewall software to protect your devices. Firewalls act as the first line of defense, monitoring and controlling online communication.

Digital Evidence Collection in Cybersecurity

In the early 1980s, personal computers (PCs) became increasingly popular and accessible to the general public. This growth in accessibility extended to various fields, including criminal activities. With the emergence of computer-related crimes like fraud and software cracking, the discipline of computer forensics was born. Today, digital evidence is crucial in investigating a wide range of crimes, including fraud, espionage, and cyberstalking. Forensic experts utilize their skills and techniques to analyze digital artifacts such as computer systems, storage devices (e.g., SSDs, hard drives, USB flash drives), and electronic documents like emails, images, and chat logs.

What is Electronic Evidence in Cyber Forensics?

Electronic evidence in cyber forensics refers to any digital data that assists in the investigation of cybercrimes or legal cases. This evidence encompasses files, logs, emails, metadata, and internet activity. Associated with computers, mobile devices, networks, and cloud storage, electronic evidence plays a key role in uncovering illicit activities such as hacking and fraud. Forensic tools are used to collect this data without altering it, ensuring its integrity and authenticity for legal proceedings. By analyzing electronic evidence, investigators can extract relevant information, such as communication patterns or unauthorized access. Adhering to legal protocols, including maintaining the chain of custody, is essential to ensuring the admissibility of evidence in court. This evidence is vital for understanding and effectively addressing cyber incidents.

Challenges in Digital Evidence Collection in Cyber Security

Collecting digital evidence in cyber security poses several challenges due to the ever-evolving nature of technology and the complexity of cyber environments. Key challenges include:

• Data Volatility: Crucial evidence can be easily altered or lost in active systems if not captured promptly.
• Encrypted Data: Accessing protected or encrypted data often requires advanced decryption methods and legal authorization.
• Integrity and Authenticity: Ensuring data remains unaltered during collection is critical, as any modification can make it inadmissible in court.
• Jurisdictional Issues: Legal and jurisdictional challenges arise when evidence spans multiple regions, requiring compliance with diverse laws and international cooperation.
• Technological Advancements: The rapid pace of technological innovation necessitates constant updates to forensic tools and methods, as well as ongoing training for cybersecurity professionals.

Process of Digital Evidence Collection

The process of collecting digital evidence involves several steps:

1. Data Collection: Identifying and collecting relevant data for investigation.
2. Examination: Carefully examining the collected data.
3. Analysis: Using various tools and techniques to analyze the evidence and draw conclusions.
4. Reporting: Compiling all documentation and reports for submission in legal proceedings.

Types of Collectible Data

Computer investigators need to understand the types of evidence they are looking for to structure their investigation. Crimes involving computers can vary widely, from trading illegal items to intellectual property theft and personal data breaches. Investigators use specialized tools and methods to recover and prevent damage to data during retrieval.

There are two primary types of data in computer forensics:

• Persistent Data: Stored on non-volatile devices like hard drives, SSDs, USB drives, and CDs. This data remains intact even when the system is powered off.
• Volatile Data: Stored in volatile memory (e.g., RAM, cache) or in transit. This data is lost when the system is powered down, making its timely capture essential.

Types of Evidence

Different types of evidence are critical for investigations:

• Real Evidence: Tangible items such as hard drives, USB devices, and documents. Eyewitness accounts can also be included.
• Hearsay Evidence: Statements made outside the courtroom that are presented in court to prove their content.
• Original Evidence: Statements made by non-testifying individuals to establish that the statement was made, not its truth.
• Testimony: Statements made under oath in court. Evidence must be reliable, accurate, and authentic to be admissible and withstand legal scrutiny.

Advantages of Digital Evidence Forensics in Cyber Security

• Protects computer systems and digital devices.
• Supports legal proceedings with credible evidence.
• Aids organizations in identifying compromises and safeguarding sensitive information.
• Facilitates the tracing of cybercriminals globally.
• Provides evidence in court to demonstrate criminal behavior.

Challenges During Digital Evidence Collection

• Data must be handled with care to avoid damage.
• Challenges in retrieving volatile data.
• Recovery of lost data.
• Ensuring the integrity of the collected data remains intact.

Digital Evidence Preservation – Digital Forensics

As the domains of the Internet, Technology, and Digital Forensics continue to grow, understanding how they aid in safeguarding digital evidence becomes increasingly vital. Preserving digital evidence is essential as even the slightest oversight can result in evidence loss and potentially compromise a case.

Essential Steps for Preserving Digital Evidence

This section highlights the crucial actions required to prevent data loss before engaging forensic experts. Time is of the essence when dealing with digital evidence.

1. Avoid Altering the Device’s State: If the device is powered off, leave it off. If it’s powered on, keep it on. Seek forensic expertise before making any changes.
2. Turn Off Mobile Devices When Necessary: For mobile phones, avoid charging if the battery is low. If the device is active, shut it down to prevent automatic processes like data wiping or overwriting.
3. Secure the Device Properly: Do not leave the device in unsecured areas or unattended. Document the location of the device, who has access to it, and any movements.
4. Refrain from Connecting External Storage: Do not plug in USB drives, memory cards, or other storage media to avoid unintentional modifications.
5. Do Not Copy Data: Avoid transferring files to or from the device, as this can modify slack space in memory and alter the original data.
6. Photograph the Evidence: Capture images of the device from all angles to verify its condition and ensure it hasn’t been tampered with.
7. Record Access Credentials: Note down the device’s PIN, password, or pattern lock, and share these with forensic experts to simplify their work.
8. Avoid Opening Files or Applications: Accessing files, pictures, or applications may result in data corruption or loss.
9. Rely on Trained Forensic Experts Only: Allow only certified forensic professionals to examine the device. Untrained handling can lead to data destruction.
10. Use Hibernate Mode for Computers: To preserve both disk and volatile memory contents, put the computer in hibernate mode instead of shutting it down.

Details You Need to Prepare and Share

For effective evidence acquisition by forensic investigators, devices are often seized or their forensic copies are made at the site. Consider the following points to assist in the process:

• Be ready to provide authentication codes, such as passwords or lock patterns.
• Share device manuals, chargers, and cables when required.
• Internet activity logs can help provide a complete picture of device usage.
• Ensure you have ownership of the device to avoid legal complications.
• Use external memory storage for backups instead of relying solely on your phone.
• Regularly back up your device to maintain records for future restoration or forensic needs.

Three Techniques to Preserve Digital Evidence

Here are three primary methods forensic experts use to secure digital evidence before beginning their analysis:

1. Drive Imaging:
   • Creating a bit-by-bit duplicate of a drive ensures that analysis is performed on the duplicate rather than the original.
   • Wiped drives can still contain recoverable data.
   • Use write blockers to maintain the integrity of the original evidence during duplication.
2. Hash Values:
   • Cryptographic hash values (e.g., MD5, SHA1) are used to confirm that the duplicate is an exact replica of the original.
   • Changes to even a single bit of data result in a new hash value, which could raise concerns in court.
   • Hash values provide a reliable method to ensure data authenticity and integrity.
3. Chain of Custody (CoC):
   • Maintain documentation of every step taken during the evidence collection and transfer process.
   • Gaps in CoC records can render evidence inadmissible in court.
   • The CoC demonstrates the possession history of the evidence, ensuring its authenticity.

Challenges in Preserving Digital Evidence

Preserving digital evidence can present several challenges, including:

1. Legal Admissibility: To ensure evidence is admissible in court, it must be quarantined promptly and documented thoroughly with a proper CoC.
2. Evidence Destruction: Malicious actors may delete crucial data, such as installed applications, making subsequent forensic analysis difficult.
3. Continued Use of the Device: If the device remains in active use, the risk of evidence being altered or lost increases over time.

Computer Forensic Report Format

The primary objective of computer forensics is to conduct a systematic investigation of a computing device to determine what occurred or who was responsible, while ensuring that the evidence chain is properly documented in a formal report. Below is the structure or template for a Computer Forensic Report:

Executive Summary

This section provides background information about the circumstances that required an investigation. Designed primarily for senior management, who may not read the full report, this section is concise and typically one page long. It should include:

• Details of the individual or entity that authorized the forensic investigation.
• A brief summary of the key evidence discovered.
• An explanation of why the forensic examination of the computing device was necessary.
• A signature block for the examiners who carried out the investigation.
• Full names, job titles, and dates of initial contact or communication for everyone involved in the case.

Objectives

This section outlines the tasks planned for the investigation. In some cases, the forensic examination might not conduct a full review but instead focus on specific media contents.

The planned tasks must be reviewed and approved by the legal team, decision-makers, and the client prior to starting the analysis. This section includes:

• A list of the tasks undertaken, the methods used for each task, and their status at the conclusion of the investigation.

Computer Evidence Analyzed

This section introduces all collected evidence and its interpretations. It provides details such as:

• Evidence tag numbers.
• Descriptions of the evidence.
• Media serial numbers.

Relevant Findings

This section summarizes evidence with significant probative value. For instance, when forensic material recovered from a crime scene (e.g., fingerprints, hair strands, shoe prints) matches a reference sample from a suspect, it is considered strong evidence.

It addresses key questions such as:

• What related items or objects were discovered during the investigation?

Supporting Details

This section presents a comprehensive analysis of the findings summarized earlier. It explains how conclusions were reached and includes:

• Tables of important files with full pathnames.
• Results of string searches.
• Reviewed emails, URLs, and other data.
• Total number of files reviewed and other relevant information.

Additional Subsections

Additional subsections may be included based on the client’s specific requirements. Examples include:

• Attacker Methodology: Provides insights into how attacks were carried out, detailing their general or specific methods. This section is particularly useful for computer intrusion cases. It explains what evidence of such attacks might look like in standard logs.
• User Applications: Discusses relevant applications installed on the analyzed media. For instance, if the system was used in a cyberattack, this section might highlight attack-related tools.
• Internet Activity: Summarizes the web browsing history of the media’s user. It can shed light on intent, malicious tool downloads, unallocated space, and programs designed to remove or secure-delete evidence.
• Recommendations: Offers suggestions to help clients prepare for future security incidents. These may include host-based, network-based, or procedural measures to reduce or eliminate risks.